Humanism and Early Renaissance
During the Renaissance, humanism emerged as a significant intellectual movement, starting in Italy in the late 14th century and spreading across Europe by the mid-15th century. By the 16th century, it had become the dominant intellectual force. Humanism focused on studying and imitating the classical cultures of ancient Rome and Greece, which was believed to lead to a cultural rebirth after the perceived decline of the Middle Ages. This movement inspired new ideas, rhetoric, and perspectives, influencing both the Protestant and Catholic Reformations. Humanism's impact was extensive, and its importance has been extensively studied and interpreted in various ways.
The Term
In the 16th century, the term "humanist" was coined to represent those involved in the "studia humanitatis," which encompassed grammar, rhetoric, history, poetry, and moral philosophy. Humanists focused on human ethics and imagination, setting it apart from fields like math, natural philosophy, and theology. They emphasized mastering Latin and delved into classical culture, particularly Latin texts. By retrieving, editing, and explaining ancient Greek and Latin works, humanists contributed significantly to the European Renaissance. Their writings covered education, ethics, and politics, often drawing from Aristotle, Plato, and Cicero. The word "humanism" later emerged to describe human nature in the 19th century. Many Renaissance humanists and later writers shared similar values and educational ideas, continuing the humanist tradition.
Humanism and Renaissance
Italy was the birthplace of Renaissance Humanism, which greatly influenced Western culture. Through Arabic translations from Africa and Spain, Italian scholars discovered Ancient Greek thought, particularly Aristotle. In the 13th century, humanism and the arts thrived in Italy, with Padua, Verona, Naples, and Avignon as important centers.
Petrarch, the father of humanism, made significant contributions, discovering influential manuscripts like Cicero's Pro Archia And Pomponius Mela's De Chorographia.
By the end of the 15th century, humanism shifted from Italy to northern Europe, with Erasmus of Rotterdam as a leading scholar. Renaissance humanism profoundly impacted education, stressing classical literature's value for intellectual discipline and moral standards.
Renaissance humanism celebrated human dignity and intellect, emphasizing the study of classical literature for moral and practical values. It advocated reason over instinctual desires, promoting well-rounded development of physical, mental, artistic, and moral abilities.
Today, "humanists" are associated with seeking truth through experience and reason, valuing culture and nature. Christian humanism, evident in writers like Sidney, Spenser, and Milton, has gained popularity.
The Renaissance's influence extended to the natural sciences and technology, enhancing human achievements.
Humanism in the Age of Enlightenment
During the Age of Enlightenment, humanistic concepts resurged with a detachment from religion and classical literature. Science, reason, and intellectualism replaced God as the means to understand the world. Humanistic values like tolerance and opposition to slavery emerged, as the divine no longer dictated human morals. Breakthroughs in technology fueled confidence in humanity, and new philosophical, social, and political ideas flourished. Theism was rejected, giving rise to atheism, deism, and hostility towards organized religion.
Moreover, the Enlightenment saw the emergence of an abstract conception of humanity. The focus shifted from appeals to men to a broader notion of the individual "Man". Political documents like Rousseau's Social Contract and Thomas Paine's The Rights of Man reflected this universal conception of mankind. Baconian empiricism also paved the way for Thomas Hobbes's materialism
Humanism in Victorian Era
In the Victorian Era, Matthew Arnold was a notable advocate of humanism and stressed the importance of humane studies in education. His ideas were rooted in classical humanism, considering culture as the pinnacle of human nature, distinguishing it from animality and reflecting the beauty and value of humanity.
In 1890, the German philosopher Wilhelm Dilthey made a significant distinction between natural and human sciences. Natural sciences seek to "explain" the world through reduction, while the humanities or human sciences aim to "understand" the concrete world of human experience. Works of literature, for example, represent the lived human world.
New Humanism
New Humanism was a critical movement in the United States from 1910 to 1930, influenced by Matthew Arnold's literary and social theories. It aimed to recapture the moral essence of past civilizations in an age of industrialization, materialism, and relativism.
Reacting against scientific literary philosophies, New Humanists rejected deterministic views of human nature. They asserted the uniqueness of human beings, the moral essence of experience, and the essential freedom of the human will, despite genetic and environmental influences. Notable figures like Paul Elmer More, Irving Babbitt, Norman Foerster, and Robert Shafer led the movement, outlining an entire program and aesthetic based on these beliefs.
However, by the 1930s, the New Humanists faced criticism as cultural elitists and advocates of social and aesthetic conservatism. As a result, their influence diminished significantly.
Humanism From Darwin to the Current Era
The "religion of humanity" was a concept introduced by Auguste Comte, a French philosopher, in the 19th century. It aimed to establish a secular, humanistic belief system that emphasized the importance of human values, reason, and progress rather than traditional religious dogma. While Thomas Paine was not directly associated with this idea, he was part of an atheist cult that shared some humanistic principles but disbanded later.
Auguste Comte's concept of the "religion of humanity" had a significant impact on various writers and thinkers during the 19th century, who embraced humanism and rejected supernaturalism in their writings.
Examples of its influence can be seen in the works of:
Oscar Wilde: The renowned writer and playwright, Oscar Wilde, incorporated humanistic ideas into his works, advocating for the pursuit of art, beauty, and individuality as essential aspects of humanity's progress.
George Holyoake: He coined the term "secularism" and was a prominent advocate of atheism and humanism, promoting rationalism and the separation of church and state.
George Eliot (Mary Ann Evans): The novelist George Eliot was known for her realistic portrayal of human character and her critical examination of religious beliefs in her novels.
Émile Zola: The influential French writer Émile Zola depicted social issues and human behavior in a naturalistic and humanistic manner, often challenging prevailing moral and religious norms.
E.S. Beesly: A historian and philosopher, E.S. Beesly, supported secular education and promoted humanistic values in society.
The concept of the "religion of humanity" drew upon the biblical criticism of David Strauss and Ludwig Feuerbach, who challenged traditional religious interpretations and sought to understand religious beliefs from a human-centered perspective.
The scientific and philosophical advancements, particularly Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection, had a profound impact on religious beliefs. Darwin's theory provided a naturalistic explanation for the diversity of species, weakening the traditional teleological argument for the existence of God. It also challenged the notion of humans as distinct and superior to animals, suggesting a continuity of life forms.
Friedrich Nietzsche critiqued religion, emphasizing the idea of the "death of God" and advocating for a revaluation of values. Ludwig Feuerbach viewed religious beliefs as projections of human ideals and desires. Karl Marx, in his materialist perspective, saw religion as a product of societal conditions and a tool of social control.
Julius Wellhausen and David Strauss questioned the Bible's historical accuracy and divine authorship, promoting critical biblical studies.
In Britain, Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill developed utilitarianism, a moral philosophy that emphasized the greatest good for the greatest number, reflecting a humanistic concern for the welfare and happiness of individuals in society.
Humanism in Structuralism and Poststructuralism
In recent times, some philosophical and critical theories, such as structuralism and poststructuralism, have emerged as explicitly antihumanistic. They seek to challenge and undermine the values proposed by traditional humanism and aim to decenter the focus on the human subject as the central agent of progress in culture, art, and science.
One key figure in this movement is Michel Foucault, who critiqued the notion of "Man" as merely a linguistic construct that will eventually evolve into new forms. According to poststructuralist thinkers, the concept of a fixed and stable human subject is an illusion, and they deconstruct the idea of a coherent, essential human identity.
Deconstructionists take this further, reducing humans to a mere product of language and cultural codes. They argue that the human subject is constructed through language and discourse, making any fixed essence of "self" elusive. For them, the author becomes a "space" where linguistic effects and cultural influences converge to create a text.
Marxists and new-historicists view the human subject as a variable construction shaped by historical and ideological forces. They emphasize that the author's literary work is a product of the prevailing discursive formations of their time, reflecting the dominant beliefs and ideologies.
On the other hand, proponents of identity politics, such as feminists, gay and lesbian critics, and advocates of ethnic multiculturalism, also challenge traditional humanistic views. They reject the idea of a universal human subject and instead emphasize the importance of individual representatives from specific social or cultural groups. Their focus is on acknowledging the diverse experiences and perspectives of different identities, rather than assuming a unified human essence.
For example:
A poststructuralist literary critic might analyze a novel, emphasizing how the author's language choices deconstruct traditional notions of gender roles and challenge the fixed concept of "womanhood" in society.
A Marxist scholar might study historical documents, examining how certain economic and political ideologies shaped the perception of "the working class" in a particular era, and how this influenced the literature of that time.
A feminist critic might explore how female writers use language and narrative to assert their unique experiences and perspectives, rather than conforming to traditional male-dominated literary norms.
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